September 2004 BCGWA Newsletter BCGWA e-mail address: secretary.bcgwa@shaw.ca ____________________________________________________________________________ PRESIDENT'S MESSAGE Greetings to all B.C. Ground Water Association members! The first thing I want to say to all the members is Thank you for having the confidence in me to elect me as your new president. As I had mentioned at CanWell, I will be filling some pretty big shoes left by our past president, Bruce Ingimundson. Bruce worked tirelessly for our members and association over the past two years. Being a year we hosted CanWell made the efforts that much more daunting. Most of you have no idea of the amount of work Bruce has put into the association and its causes. To that end I would like to thank Bruce for all that he has done. I would be completely remised in my duties if I did not mention the outstanding job that Joan Perry did, not only for the day to day functions of the association but CanWell 2004. Words can not adequately express my thanks and congratulations to Joan. She almost single handedly put the entire show together! We owe her a great debt of gratitude for all of her efforts. I should also give special mention and thanks to Gilles Wendling for arranging all the technical sessions. They were very well received and I heard many positive comments about the presentations. The French delegation was very interesting and added a global dimension to the show and perhaps a glimpse of the future for us in Canada. All of the presentations are available on our website for your reading. Thank you, Gilles. In case you missed it, we had a terrific time at the golf tournament hosted by Remi Allard at the Harvest Golf and Country Club. Remi arranged a fun tournament and wonderful dinner that everyone thoroughly enjoyed, including yours truly. Remi was instrumental in helping organize CanWell 2004. Thanks to the efforts of a small group of people, CanWell 2004 was a resounding success! My thanks also goes out to the other members of the organizing committee, Jim Fyfe and Jim Clark, who helped keep things organized and moving in the right direction. Their many hours of effort made CanWell 2004 a very organized event that stayed within budget while providing a quality show. On other matters, I am pleased to report that the new regulations for well sealing, floodproofing and contractor certification are being looked at very favourably by the government. Minister Bill Barisoff had indicated at CanWell that these new regulations will receive his support and will bring British Columbia into a new era of ground water management. Stay tuned for more information. I have asked that all area directors have at least one annual meeting with the contractors in their area, to stay abreast of developments and issues, then report back to me. Everyone is very busy now but don't forget your association. My door is always open and I would encourage anyone to contact me at 1-800-900-2220 for any constructive ideas or issues that will help the association. There are major changes afoot and we need to be positioned as a solid, well organized association that is the recognized leader in ground water issues into this century. Have a safe and prosperous year! Best Regards, Dave Mellis Note: Dave was also one of the hard working CanWell 2004 committee members who put in countless hours to achieve our goal of putting together an interesting, informative and successful show. Thank you, Dave. ······ Membership Dues Membership dues are now due! If you haven't already renewed your dues for the 2004 year, please get a cheque into the office ASAP. If your dues are not renewed, your name will not be included in the membership booklet or posted on our web site. The new membership booklet will be mailed out the first week of July. ······ Here is your new executive for the coming year: Executive: President-Dave Mellis Vice President-David Slade Secretary-Bruce Grey Treasurer-Walt Perry Directors: Cariboo-Peter Epp Kootenays-Darrin Parnell, Dennis Thompson Okanagan-Remi Allard Fraser Valley-Jim Clark Vancouver Island-Calvin Slade Manufacturers/Suppliers-John Fahr Professional/Technical-Gilles Wendling CGWA Rep-Jim Fyfe Past President-Bruce Ingimundson ······ Business For Sale 24 year old established well drilling business in the Fraser Valley of B.C. Consisting of 1 air rotary drill rig and 1 cable tool with all support equipment. Work all year round. Ph: 604-534-1347. ······ MWLAP Information Series The following page is the sixth information pamphlet that has been sent to us from the MWLAP. The other topics deal with Arsenic, Flouride, Hardness, Iron & Manganese, Nitrate, and Total and Faecal Coliform. All of these pages are available at the BCGWA office. ······ Ryan's Foundation We were all deeply moved by Ryan Hreljac's talk and video presentation at the Convention. I noticed many tears in the audience from people who were touched by his story. It's wonderful to see what a young person can accomplish when they put their mind to it. When Ryan was in Grade 1, he watched a video that showed the kind of water people in Africa were drinking. Drinking this water caused sickness and even death and he wanted to do something about it, so he started raising money to buy a well in Africa. This young man is now 12 years old and has raised over $800,000 for his Foundation. Challenge: I would like to pledge from Drillwell, $50.00 to Ryan's Well Foundation through the BCGWA and challenge all members to do the same or better. I would also like to have the BCGWA challenge all other Provincial associations to try and match or beat our total! David Slade Drillwell Enterprises Inc. ······ As always…keep grinning…it makes people wonder what you are up to… ······ Africa and the Quest for Clean Drinking Water Imagine if twelve jumbo jets crashed a day! That would be 5,000 lives extinguished daily and over 150,000 lives a month. Could you imagine if the majority of those who died were children! The world would be in hysterics! More than likely, world leaders would rush to cooperate to figure out a solution to the crashes. Legislation would be passed immediately without regard to international relations but to save lives. However what if you knew that an equal number of casualties do occur every day but not as a result of plane crashes, but as a result of unclean drinking water. Tragically, 5,000 children die a day as a result of water-born diseases in developing areas of the world such as Africa. When was the last time you thought about flushing the toilet after you relieve yourself? More than likely the thought does not cross your mind. What if you knew that three billion people do not have access to modern sanitation and have to think about where their waste will go? When was the time you associated a bottle of Evian with war? Experts think that the next major world war will be caused by shortages of clean drinking water more than likely on the continent of Africa. Access to clean drinking water is not available to millions of people. It is the cause of diseases and many deaths. The next time you feel thirsty and grab for a glass of water, hopefully you will realize how lucky you are to have clean drinking water. The point is not to feel guilty, but to be aware that all people do not have access to this resource. Let's all accept the Drillwell challenge and meet or beat their $50.00 donation to raise money for Ryan's Foundation. Please make cheques payable to the B.C. Ground Water Association and all donations will be forwarded. ······ Thank you M&S for your support! Thank you M&S for supporting our CanWell 2004 convention! You made the show interesting and informative for the delegates that attended. We hope it was just as successful for you and that you were able to make new contacts. Rigs: § Foremost Industries Ltd. § GEFCO § Marwyn Sales & Supply § SEMCO, Inc. Booths: § ABCO International Inc. § Aggressive Pump & Supply Inc. § American Manufacturing § Andrew Sheret Limited § Angus Flexible Pipelines § Aquatic Life Ltd. § Atlas Manufacturing Ltd. § BCWWA § Baroid I.D.P. Canada § Boart Longyear Inc. § Boshart Industries Inc. § C.G.W.A. § Canamara SDS § CanTest Ltd. § Centerline Manufacturing Company § CETCO § Cubex Ltd. § Cycle Stop Valves § DSI-Thiessen Mining Division § DuAlaska Co, Inc. § Enviro Direct Corp. § Enzeetech Inc. § Farwest Special Products § Franklin Electric § Golder Associates Ltd. § G.P. Fiberglass Ltd. § Ground Water Canada Magazine § Grundfos Canada Inc. § Gus Pech Mfg. Co. Inc. § Hamaman Inc. § Hoskin Scientific Ltd. § Industrial Test Systems, Inc. § Inukton Services Ltd. § In-Well Technologies § Johnson Screens § Kaizen Environmntal § Karlington Electric, Inc. § King Oil Tools § Lackner McLennan Insurance § Lakos Separators/Laval Undergrond Surveys § Langley Welding & Machine Shop Ltd. § Maas Midwest Mfg. Inc. § Merrill Mfg. Company § Morrow Environmental Consultants Inc. § NGWA § Norwesco, Inc. § NUMA § Osprey Scientific § Pembina Controls Inc. § Petro Canada § R-Can Environmental Inc. § Rice Engineering and Operating Ltd. § Rockmore International § RST Instruments Ltd. § Sego Industries § Spears Sales & Service Ltd. § Sphere Drilling Supplies § Stratex Overburden Drill Systems § Target Products Ltd. § Team Manufacturing Ltd. § Terasen Waterworks § Tundra Sales § Van Isle Water Service Ltd. § Variperm Canada Ltd. § Westcoast Drilling Supplies Ltd. § Western Rubber and Mfg. § Worldwide Drilling Resource ······ Web-Site Don't forget to check out our B.C. Ground Water Association web-site. You can keep up-to-date with what is happening with your association. You can now apply to place a banner ad on the site. This is an ad that comes across the screen when you first turn the computer on to the www.bcgwa.org web site. These ads are being charged at $300.00 per year. Check out the web and see if you would like to advertise this way. Last month we had over 2500 visitors to the site. ······ Purchase of CanWell bags At the CanWell Convention, soft brief case style bags were given out with a full convention registration. These bags were very popular at the convention and everyone was very excited to receive one. Since then, we have received a number of requests from companies wanting to know if they could get more. We have some bags available for purchase. The price is $25.00 per bag. (Includes tax and delivery.) Contact the office and we'll get one off to you. ······ "Time is nature's way of keeping everything from happening all at once." ······ Injection Wells At the Annual General Meeting a motion was unanimously passed as follows. " That in the absence of legislation, (members should) discourage the practice of storm and waste water injection wells, while encouraging the use of wetlands and perk fields for surplus water disposal and groundwater recharge." The above resolution is meant to cause all members to question the practice of disposing of unwanted water by running it untreated into groundwater aquifers. This method of water disposal poses serious threat of contamination to aquifers which normally would have some degree of natural protection. In bypassing the layers rich in soil bacteria, oxygen, and fine grained filtering sediments, it is only a mater of time until valuable groundwater resources are contaminated beyond use by commercial, industrial, and agricultural runoff which is being channeled directly into aquifers. Please take a stand and let your concerns be known if you come across a project that may threaten the resource upon which we all depend. Sincerely David Slade Drillwell Enterprises ······ CanWell 2004 From rigs to screens, this show had something for everyone. The Canadian Ground Water Association asked B.C. to host a first-class-show and from the thank you letters that we have received from them, we feel we did not let them down. The pre-show events started with a very well planned golf tournament. There were lots of prizes and many stayed for the dinner that followed. A wine tour and a boat tour was another interesting and fun way to spend the day. Everybody mingled at the Welcome reception in the evening and we all got to meet new people and visit with old acquaintances. Trade Show: All of the latest equipment, tools and supplies were on display in the Trade Show area at Prospera Place. 4 rigs and 71 booths made for a very busy 2 days. The delegates were kept very busy trying to make sure they had enough time to visit all of the booths. Product seminars were held in the main Trade Show area while "B" sessions were held in another room. Drilling techniques, Safety, WCB regulations and running a business were topics of some of the seminars that took place. The first part of the evening started with a wine and cheese tasting, complimentary from the French Consulate in Vancouver, a wonderful dinner followed and then we were entertained by the hilarious comedian, Michael Harrison. The "A" session speakers hailed from France, Germany, the United States and Canada. Water Management in France, aquifer sustainability, aquifer mapping, Water legislations in B.C., well rehabilitation, climate change, the B.C. web-site and breathing wells were some of the topics that were discussed at these meetings. The partner's (women's) program was impressed by speaker Cameron Johnston who discussed stress management. There were casino lessons, a mini spa treatment and a discussion on skin care. Frances McGuckin spoke on "Are You Organized or Out of Control?" A visit to the wine Museum and a walk about Kelowna's cultural district, rounded out the program. Francis McGuckin was also one of our key-note speakers who spoke at our Friday luncheon on "Surviving and Succeeding in a changing World." Other key-note speaker, David Suzuki is known for being very controversial. He confessed that he didn't now a damn thing about ground water, (that was the audiences expertise) but works through science and education to protect the balance of nature and our quality of life now and for future generations. Ryan Hreljac was a 12 year old key-note speaker who amazed everyone with his passion for raising money for wells in Africa. The final night, everyone was ready to unwind at the banquet and dance and enjoyed the music of "Elvis Gold". Many danced to those wonderful tunes from the 50's and 60's. The CGWA held their Director's meeting in Kelowna before the start of CanWell and the Annual General Meeting followed. The 2002-2003 Report is included with this Newsletter. The B. C. Ground Water Association Annual general Meeting was held as well and the minutes from that meeting are included ······ Donations Thank you to all of the company's for sponsoring the following events at CanWell 2004. Your support was very much appreciated and really contributed to the success of the show. David Suzuki - Berkeley Pumps Drillwell Enterprises Field Drilling Contractors Goulds Red Deer College Thorman Drilling Brief case bag - Fyfe's Well Drilling Golder Associates Technical Presentations - Baroid of Canada Clark Drilling Services Ltd. Pacific Hydrology Thurber Engineering Entertainment - Marwyn Sales Ryan's Foundation - Capital Water Supply Ltd. Clark Drilling Services Ltd. JBD Pumps Fran McGuckin - P.S.I. Coffee sponsorship - Aermotor Pumps Aqua Drilling Services Ltd. Clark Drilling Services Ltd. Independent Pump Lackner McLennan Insurance M. Schibli Drilling Mud Bay Drilling P.S.I. SRK Consulting Thorman Drilling Ward Watkins Insurance Continental Breakfast - Angus Flexible Pipelines Boart Longyear Lackner McLennan Insurance P.S.I. Sego Industries Ltd. Stanley Pump Supply WSH Labs Transportation - B.C. Aquifer Testing Franklin Electric G.R. Martin Contracting Welcome Reception - B.C. Aquifer Testing Canamara Clearwater Drilling Ltd. Jet Lube Lackner McLennan Insurance Langley Welding & Machine Maas Midwest Marwyn Sales Norwesco Nor-West Drilling Ltd. P.S.I. Perry's Well Drilling Piteau Associates Van Isle Water Western Rubber Golf - Atlas Manufacturing Ltd. Big Country Pumps Can Test Ltd. Farwest Special Products Franklin Electric Grundfos Canada JBD Pumps NUMA P.S.I. Thiessen Equipment offered $10,000 for a "hole in one" on hole #4. There were no lucky golfers that day! Sponsorship donations were also made by the City of Kelowna who donated $100.00 and the Ministry of Water Land and Air Protection who donated $1,000.00 Thank you to the French Consulate who hosted the wine and cheese in the Trade Show area on Thursday night. It was wonderful to sample some fine French wines. Winner of Fyfe's Drilling Tools, men's draw was Wade Johnson of Aaron Drilling, Okotoks, Alberta and the winner of the ABCO International Inc., women's draw was Joan Perry. Wade won a Fishing Game Board and Joan won a beautiful opal necklace. ······ Things You'd Love to Say Out Loud at a Board Meeting I see your point…but I still think you're full of it I don't know what your problem is…but I'll bet it's hard to pronounce How about never…is never good for you? I see you've set aside this special time to humiliate yourself in public. I'm really easy to get along with…once you learn to see it my way. I'll try being nicer…if you'll try being smarter. I'm out of my mind…but feel free to leave a message. I don't work here…I'm just a consultant. It sounds something like English…but I can't understand a dang word you're saying. I like you…you remind me of myself when I was young and stupid. You are validating my inherent mistrust of strangers. I will always cherish the initial misconceptions I had about you. The fact that no one understands you…doesn't mean you're light years ahead of the rest of us. Any connection between your reality and mine…is purely coincidental. I started out with nothing…and I still have most if it left. Sarcasm…is just one of the many services we offer here. Clowns everywhere…and not a circus in sight. Oh, I get it…it's like humor…but different. Chaos, panic, and disorder…well, my work here is done…I'm outta' here. ······ Thank you CanWell Helpers! Thank you to the following people who helped at CanWell. There was a lot to do and you helped get us there. Verla Reed Fumi Walsh Patty Oster Calvin Slade Leesa Slade Kelly Slade Barbi Gibbons Pina Allard Shirley Schibli Narissa Schibli Audrey Thorman Valerie Rogers Jan Bombardier Shirley Clark Karen Brinson Lee Wolff Mary Chorm Elaine Sharpe ······ Live Demo Thank you, Foremost Industries for providing the CanWell attendees with a dual rotary drilling demonstration. In conjunction with J.R. Drilling of Cranbrook/Kamloops, contractors were able to watch as a 6 inch cased well was drilled. Contractors were very impressed with the capabilities of this rig and were glad they were given a chance to see this first-hand action. These dual rotary drills are known for their ability to drill and case in difficult unconsolidated overburden, including sand, gravel, boulders and glacial till. Membership Changes M&S Section: DSI - Mining Division has moved to 5492-275th Street Glouchester Ind. Park Langley, B.C. V4W 3X7 Please make note of the new ph: #'s Ph: 604-857-1500 Fax: 604-857-1580 Toll Free: 877-857-1300 (The Tim Horton's coffee is always on.) Changes at Westcoast Drilling Supplies Ltd. On March 11, 2004, Al Clark sold the ownership of Westcoast Drilling Supplies Ltd. to Diversity Technologies Corporation (DiCorp). Al has retired from his position as president of Westcoast and Dirk Le Poole has been appointed president of Westcoast. Al will continue his relationship with Westcoast as a consultant. All current employees of Westcoast are staying with the company. You will notice no change in the high level of service you have come to expect. Operations from the Vancouver office and warehouse will continue and your contacts with the company will be the same as before. For your records: DiCorp 8750-53rd Avenue Edmonton, Alberta T6E 5G2 (780) 440-4923 On the technical front, things are moving in BC with the recent implementation of the Ground Water Protection Regulation, as part of the Drinking Water Protection Act. Mike Wei, from the BC Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection (BC WALP) is presenting these new regulations in a separate article, in this newsletter. There will be lots of work and actions triggered by these new regulations and the BCGWA is presently developing information and educational material and designing a program to pass the information. Venues such as the BCGWA newsletter, the BCGWA website (www.bcgwa.org) and workshops organized in conjunction with BCGWA regional meetings will be used to inform you of the new regulation and its implications. In this newsletter, I would like to share an article that I read recently and found extremely informative, for us professionals in the water industry, as well as for the public at large, as we are all water users and concerned by all the creatures living in water that could affect the health of our family or people we provide water to. This article is presented below and can be found at http://www.nesc.wvu.edu/ndwc/articles/OT/WI04/Micro.html A Lesson in Microbiology By Chain-Wen Wang, Ed.D., NDWC Contributing Writer and Craig Mains, Training Specialist, National Environmental Training Center for Small Communities Editor's Note: Many people will recall the 1993 cryptosporidium outbreak in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. An estimated one-fourth of the population there became ill and 100 people died as a result of drinking contaminated water. As dramatic as this case was, it may be only the tip of the iceberg. A 1987 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency report estimates that as many as 25 waterborne illnesses may occur for each one that is reported. The following article provides an overview of microbiology so that we may better understand waterborne illnesses and how to prevent them. What are the types of microorganisms that can contaminate drinking water and cause illnesses and affect taste and odor? How do they differ from each other? To answer these questions, a very basic explanation of how biologists classify living organisms is necessary-with the understanding that classification schemes are constantly evolving. A Micro-World Order Until the mid-1800s, all living things were considered to be either plants or animals. Much of the general public still has this view. However, as scientists became more knowledgeable about the structure of microorganisms, it became clear that the two-kingdom classification was overly simplistic. In 1866, Ernst Haeckel proposed a third kingdom, Protista, which included all microorganisms, such as bacteria, protozoans, and certain fungi and algae. Over time, though, scientists acknowledged that this three-kingdom classification was also inadequate. In 1969, H.R. Whittaker of Cornell University proposed a five-kingdom classification of living organisms. Since then, due to many factors, such as electron microscopy and gene sequencing, scientists have proposed alternative seven- and eight-kingdom classifications. For now though, the five-kingdom system is commonly used and will be used here to discuss where different microorganisms fit in the scheme of classifications. Bacteria-A fundamental biological distinction is made between bacteria and all other organisms. Bacteria (singular: bacterium) fall within the kingdom Procaryotae, also called Monera. A primary feature of bacterial or procaryotic cells is that their genetic material (DNA and RNA) is not contained in a membrane-enclosed nucleus. All other organisms, including fungi, protozoa, higher plants, and animals, are classified as Eucaryotes, which make up the other four kingdoms. Eucaryotes are generally larger than bacteria and are structurally more complex. All Eucaryotes have a membrane-enclosed nucleus, plus a number of other differences in cell structure. While we often think of bacteria as agents of human infections, as a group they are probably the key to life on earth. One type of bacterium, the cyanobacteria or blue-green algae, has been found in fossils 3.5 billion years old and is considered to be responsible for creating an atmosphere in which humans and other higher plants and animals can live. Bacteria are the mediators of the carbon and nitrogen cycles and create conditions in soil that allow for plant growth. Although they are often found in multi-cellular colonies or films, bacteria are single-celled, with each cell carrying out all of the cell functions. Typical bacterial cell sizes range from 0.20 to 2.0 micrometers. Bacteria have three basic shapes: (1) spherical, termed cocci (singular: coccus); (2) rod shaped, termed bacilli (singular:bacillus); and (3) spiral shaped. Bacteria can group themselves in distinctive ways. For example, cocci that form grape-like clusters are termed staphylococci and those that form chains are called streptococci Potential waterborne bacterial pathogens include Vibrio cholerae, Campylobacter jejuni, Salmonella species, and Escherichia coli (E. coli). All of these organisms can secrete toxins that cause inflammation of the stomach and intestinal linings. E. coli gets a lot of attention because it belongs to the coliform group of bacteria that are universally used in standard tests as indicators of fecal contamination. E. coli strains vary widely in their pathogenicity. People tend to have a degree of immunity to local strains brought about by exposure. Visitors to an area lack that immunity, which can bring about cases of traveler's diarrhea. Some strains of E. coli, however, such as E. coli 0157:H7, can cause hemorrhagic colitis that results in thousands of life-threatening illnesses and hundreds of deaths a year in the U.S., although most are associated with food contamination, not contaminated drinking water. Photo Caption: This color-enhanced scanning electron micrograph shows Salmonella typhimurium (red) invading cultured human cells. Photo Source: Photo by Rocky Mountain Laboratories, NIAID, NIH with information from The National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Protozoans-Protozoans belong to the kingdom Protista. Protista is a diverse grouping of organisms that includes certain algae, yeasts, slime molds, as well as the protozoans. Protista are one-celled organisms that are eucaryotic rather than procaryotic like bacteria. That is, they have their genetic material enclosed in a distinct membrane-covered nucleus. Protozoans have a flexible outer covering, rather than a semi-rigid cell wall like bacteria. The group includes organisms such as amoebas and paramecia. Protozoans play key roles in the environment from participating in the decay of organic matter to constituting a large portion of plankton, which are free-floating organisms that are important links in aquatic food webs. Protozoans become dessicated easily and require damp or aquatic environments. They are generally much larger than bacteria, but there is some overlap between the largest bacteria and the smallest protozoans. An important feature of some protozoans is that they are capable of producing cysts under adverse conditions, such as lack of moisture, food, or oxygen, or in the presence of toxic chemicals. In the case of parasitic protozoans, the cyst allows the organism to survive outside a host, which is crucial for those protozoans whose life cycle requires multiple hosts. Cysts present some challenges for water treatment because they are resistant to disinfection. The protozoan Giardia lamblia (G. lamblia) is possibly the most common cause of waterborne diarrheal disease in the U.S. G. lamblia is commonly endemic in day-care centers, and more than five percent of adults and children are carriers who shed cysts in their feces, yet may have no symptoms. Infection is usually through cyst-contaminated water. Once cysts are ingested they transform themselves to an active feeding state called a trophozoite that attaches itself to the small intestine. Photo Caption: This is a G. lamblia cyst in a stool. Photo Source: www-medlib.med.utah.edu/parasitology/glambim.html Other protozoans of concern include Cryptosporidium, Cyclospora, and Microsporidia. Cryptosporidium, which is widespread in the natural environment, is probably of greater concern than Giardia because its smaller size makes it harder to filter, and it is more resistant to disinfection. Cyclospora and Microsporidia are recently emerging protozoal pathogens. The cysts of Cyclospora, which are bigger than those of Cryptosporidium, must be mature before they are infectious. So, if cysts are shed from the body before maturation, the host can avoid infections. Less is known about Microsporidia, and it is likely that cases may be underreported. Symptoms of protozoal infections include diarrhea, cramps, vomiting, and nausea. The extent of illness may be temporary for healthy people but can be fatal for immuno-compromised individuals. Controlling Microbial Contaminants in Drinking WaterBecause no water treatment technique is totally effective against all microbes-for example some microbes that may be resistant to disinfection may be effectively filtered-a multiple-barrier technique is commonly promoted. In fact, this strategy is required for systems using surface water or groundwater under the direct influence of surface water. Multiple-barrier requirements include filtration and disinfection. Filtration treatment techniques can include rapid sand filtration, slow sand filtration, diatomaceous earth filtration, or various membrane filtration processes. Disinfection can be by conventional chlorination methods or by ultraviolet light or ozone processes. However, neither ultraviolet light nor ozone provides any residual disinfection capacity to control microbes in the distribution system. In addition to filtration and disinfection, an effective multiple-barrier strategy should include good source water. This involves protecting and monitoring the watershed or aquifer that is the drinking water source. While a combination of filtration and disinfection is intended to reduce microbial comtaminants by 99 to 99.99 percent, if the water is of poor microbial quality, this level of removal may not be sufficient to protect public health. If certain protozoans or viruses are found in high enough concentrations in the source water, they may potentially breach the barriers of filtration and disinfection. Systems that use source water that is considered to be pristine may be able to waive the filtration requirements. Maintaining sufficient pressure in the distribution system is also important in order to prevent the backflow of potentially contaminated groundwater into the lines. Finally, regular monitoring of coliforms and turbidity is necessary to ensure water quality and treatment effectiveness.The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has set drinking water standards for the following microbial contaminants: Cryptosporidium, Giardia lamblia, Legionella, enteric viruses, and total coliforms (which include fecal coliforms and E. coli). For each, there is a maximum contaminant level goal (MCLG) of zero. MCLGs are non-enforceable health goals. Except for total coliforms, the microbes mentioned are not required to be measured directly. Instead, a treatment technique, such as filtration and/or disinfection, is prescribed that is intended to remove or inactivate the contaminant by a set percentage. Photo Caption: E. coli (red) adheres itself to intestinal cells. Photo Source: Microscopy Consulting Services Inc, www.microscopyconsulting.com Cryptosporidium is to be removed/inactivated by 99 percent, G. lamblia by 99.9 percent, and viruses by 99.99 percent. No percentage is set for Legionella, a bacterium that can lead to a type of pneumonia if it becomes aerosolized and inhaled, such as in a shower. The assumption is that if the other contaminants are removed or inactivated sufficiently, Legionella will also be controlled.Total coliforms are required to be monitored directly with no more than five percent of samples testing positive in one month. Smaller systems that collect fewer than 40 samples per month can have no more than one positive sample. Any sample that tests positive for total coliforms must be re-analyzed for fecal coliforms and E. coli.Heterotrophic plate count (HPC) is a rough measure of overall bacterial quality of water and is also regulated. HPC is a count of any bacteria that will grow on a general, non-selective medium. Water that has a high HPC count is bacterially suspect, and it is possible that high overall bacterial levels may interfere with total coliform tests, masking the detection of possible fecal contamination. There is no MCLG for HPC, and it is regulated by using treatment technologies that are expected to reduce the HPC to no more than 500 colony-forming units per milliliter.Turbidity is a measure of the cloudiness |of water. Turbidity is a good measure of treatment effectiveness, because processes such as flocculation and filtration remove particles that contribute to turbidity. Because microbes may adhere to particles, water with high turbidity is microbially suspect. Microbes may be located in the interior of a clump of particles and be protected from disinfection. Turbidity is regulated by treatment technologies rather than direct measurement. However, instrumental measurement of turbidity at different stages of the treatment process and of the finished water is simple and economical. Fungi and Algae-Fungi and algae are two diverse groups of organisms that present some difficulties in classifying. Fungi (singular: fungus) have eucaryotic cells, no chlorphyll, and obtain nutrition by absorbing soluble substances across their cell walls. Fungi that are multi-cellular fall into the Fungi kindgom, which includes mushrooms and most molds. Yeasts are one-celled fungi and are placed in the kingdom Protista. Some organisms that have traditionally been considered fungi, such as slime molds and water molds, have, with the advent of gene sequencing, been determined to be more closely related to other Protista than to fungi. Photo Source: The Protist Server Although water molds commonly grow on dead algae in freshwater environments, it is unclear to what extent fungi affect water treatment systems. Some are known to grow on walls of distribution lines and treatment tanks and have been detected in finished water. However, their main impact is generally considered to be on taste and odor, and there is little information available on their health effects. The term "algae" has no officially recognized biological meaning. It originally referred to any simple aquatic plant. Most biologists now use algae (singular: alga) to refer to organisms that have no true roots, stems, or leaves but have chlorophyll and are capable of photosynthesis. Depending on whether an alga is unicellular or multi-cellular, it is considered either part of the Protista kingdom or Plant kingdom, respectively. There is also no apparent consensus on whether algae, by definition, must be eucaryotic. If procaryotes with chlorophyll that are capable of photosynthesis, such as the cyanobacteria (blue-green algae), are included, then algae are found scattered throughout three kingdoms. Largely viewed mainly as the cause of taste, odor, and color problems, algae, especially the cyanobacteria Microcystis, Cylindrospermopsis, and Anabaena, have recently come under more scrutiny in the U.S. for their health effects. Cyanobacteria produce toxins that, depending on the filter media in use and the concentration of the toxin in the source water, can result in undesirable concentrations in finished water. The cyanotoxins, microcystin, and cylindrospermopsin are linked to nerve and liver damage. Blooms of blue-green algae are generally seasonal and are limited to surface waters. Algae and their toxins are currently unregulated by the Safe Drinking Water Act. However, they are included on EPA's Drinking Water Candidate Contaminant List (CCL), which is a list of known drinking water contaminants that may require future regulations. Although something of an emerging issue in the U.S., cyanotoxins have been recognized as a global health issue for some time. Australia has a regulatory program in place and the World Health Organization has a 1.0 microgram per liter guideline for microcystin. Viruses Viruses fall into an entirely different category, being totally unlike any of the organisms just mentioned. In fact, they may not qualify to be called organisms. All living organisms contain both DNA and RNA. Viruses may have DNA or RNA, but not both and, unlike true living organisms, their nucleic acids are inactive outside of host cells. On the other hand, once they enter host cells, their nucleic acids become active, and they are able to replicate. They also are able to cause infection and diseases just like bacteria, fungi, and protozoans. Photo Caption: This is a slide of a type B viral Hepatitis as shown in its chronic stage. Photo Source: Transplant Pathology at the University of Pittsburgh, tpis.upmc.edu/ Viruses in general are much smaller than bacteria and can be viewed only by electron microcroscopes. However, there is some overlap in size between the largest viruses and the smallest bacteria. Their small size and resistance to environmental stress creates water treatment challenges. Viruses are less easily filtered by soil than bacteria, and viruses have been detected in groundwater that was absent of fecal indicator bacteria. Enteric viruses are viruses that infect the gastrointestinal tracts of humans and animals. There are more than 140 known types of human enteric viruses, many of which cannot be cultured. Infected individuals can excrete large numbers of viruses in their feces (one billion viruses per gram of feces), even though they may be asymptomatic. Enteric viruses that have been associated with waterborne disease outbreaks include Hepatitis A virus, Hepatitis E virus, Norwalk and Norwalk-type viruses, Rotaviruses, and Enteroviruses. Enteroviruses are a large group that includes Polioviruses and Coxsackieviruses. Typical symptoms of viral infections include diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pains and cramps, and fever. Symptoms are usually self-limiting in healthy individuals, but compromised individuals are at risk for life-threatening illnesses. Some enteric viruses are linked to respiratory symptoms, liver infections, central nervous systems infections, and chronic fatigue syndrome. Because it is difficult to test for the presence and concentration of viruses, water systems in the U.S. that use surface water or groundwater that is directly under the influence of surface water are required to use a combination of treatment options and disinfection that will result in a four-log (99.99 percent) reduction or inactivation of viruses. Recognizing that a four-log reduction in viruses might not provide reliable protection from infection for systems that use poor quality source water, EPA has promulgated additional requirements, including sanitary surveys, although not all are required of small systems. The following Web sites provide additional information about microbiology: o www.germology.com has basic facts about microbes, written for the layperson; o EPA's Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water site has information about the Surface Water Treatment Rule and the Total Coliform Rule at www.epa.gov/OGWDW/mdbp/mdbp.html; o The Center for Disease Control has information on pathogenic microbes under the Health Topics A-Z menu item at www.cdc.gov; o More about cyanobacteria may be found on the World Health Organization Web site at www.who.int/docstore/water_sanitation_ health/toxicyanobact/begin.htm. Chain-Wen Wang and Craig Mains are married to each other and are the proud parents of Corbin Alexander, born in 2003. They are active with watershed groups, including the Downstream Alliance, in northern West Virginia.